Thesis Abstracts F-J

Human Resource Management in Sagarmatha National Park

Charles Falzon (2000)

Since the early 1990's debate on management capacity in protected areas has tended to focus on two categories of protagonists - protected area managers on the one hand, and indigenous communities on the other.

Research into the expanding role of field personnel, as opposed to managers, has not been conducted to any great extent. In many areas their potential has yet to be fully acknowledged through the establishment of career structures. Expectations of their ability remain low.

Such staff have traditionally been trained in technical disciplines that have generally reinforced institutional hierarchies and a protectionist attitude. These conditions have not facilitated the more holistic approach to protected area management promoted by IUCN. Since such staff present the face of the agency to visitors and locals, developing their ability to manage in the field is fundamental.

The theory of human resource management (HRM) embraces the notion of optimising the capacity of personnel to operate effectively, by encouraging and sustaining talent. In doing so, this addresses not only the professional needs of individuals but institutional needs of the organisation.

However, a number of factors are likely to enhance or inhibit HRM. These are usually of a social and cultural, religious and political nature, which have frequently become institutionalised and thus intractable. Much of the discussion about HRM, based as it on experiences in the USA and Europe, tend to overlook such critical factors. When applied to developing countries this becomes apparent.

This study discusses these issues in the context of Sagarmatha National Park in Nepal. It summarises the main ideas attached to HRM, of management styles and institutional profiles, before considering what are seen by the writer as the key factors that influence the management of staff in this sector of government activity.

The main part of the study examines in detail the Park's current staff profile, discussing individual perceptions about Park functions, management approaches, roles and training needs.

A Strategic Assessment of the Woody Grasslands of Maputaland, South Africa, with Recommendations for their Future Conservation

Ian Felton (2002)

The Woody Grassland community is regarded as an important plant community of the Maputaland Centre, an International Centre for Plant Diversity recognised by the IUCN. The potential distribution of the Woody Grassland in the study area was predicted by modelling the distinctive environmental parameters and determinants for this plant community. Three disjunct areas of Woody Grassland were identified, covering an estimated area of 58,658 Ha. This study indicates that more than 12% of the Woody Grassland community occurs within Protected Areas. An assessment of the degree of transformation of the Woody Grasslands, indicates that approximately 61% of this plant community has undergone some degree of transformation through land-use change.

Comparisons with the degree of transformation of other grassland communities in South Africa indicates that the changes that have taken place are of significant concern. The high global biodiversity value of this vegetation type and the degree of transformation warrants priority attention for conservation measures both in Provincial and National contexts.

A large portion (44.5%) of the untransformed Woody Grassland outside of Protected Areas occurs in patches greater than 300 Ha in extent. The remainder of the untransformed Woody Grassland is distributed in a fairly high number of patches (487) which average approximately 26 Ha in size. Despite the degree of transformation, the opportunity still exists to create significant connectivity between remnant grassland patches.

Recommendations are made for the establishment of seven conservation nodes or areas of unusually high conservation value, and for the establishment of corridors as linkages between these nodes in Maputaland, and to the grasslands of southern Mozambique. If these recommendations are accepted, then these areas will conserve or mitigate for the protection of 37% of the Woody Grassland community. A number of recommendations are made for the integration of conservation and development within the Woody Grasslands.

A Critical Review of the Coastal Protected Area System of Wales

Geraldine Fewster (1999)

Coastal environments play a crucial role in the survival of biodiversity and ultimately humankind. Yet pressures continue to increase in these environments making them less able to produce the resources and services that are so heavily relied upon by humankind.

The very nature of the coastal environment means it is favoured by a small multi-sectoral society, all utilising the resources in different and compounding ways. Such as industries like those directly harvesting from the environment, and others who see it as a limitless sink, being able to withstand effluent from their production. In addition the coastal zone is very popular with tourists who are attracted by the recreational opportunity and natural beauty. People also choose to live in these regions contributing to the encroachment of human development into these seemingly continual regulating systems.

Such unsustainable utilisation of these resources must be dramatically reduced, otherwise future generations will have to deal with the legacies of an ignorant past. In addition the very nature of these coastal environments means that it has to accommodate pressures from both terrestrial and marine environments, and on a wider scale.

Protected areas are seen as a crucial tool to help minimise these impacts and promote sustainability. However an effective comprehensive, co-ordinated protected area system is required to match those systems present in the marine environment such as transportation of substances.

Coastal protection measures have however lagged far behind terrestrial counterparts. So much so that there is still a lot that is not known about these environments. One mechanism that has been the subject of much debate is the concept of integrated coastal zone management, to facilitate the concept of sustainable development in these highly sensitive, important and beautiful regions. The foundations are already in place to help build this concept such as the protected area system. But the protected area system must be an effective tool in safeguarding the coastal and marine environments. This study aims to critically review the protected area system that is in place in Wales, and determine its effectiveness as a protective tool. This will be carried out by interviewing key players in both the conservation of coastal resources and those who actively contribute to its downfall.

The Role of the RSPB as a Non-Governmental Organisation in Protected Landscape Management

Tamsin Frost (2001)

A system of protected areas is the core of any programme that seeks to maintain the diversity of ecosystems, species and wild genetic resources; and to protect the world's great natural areas for their intrinsic, inspirational and recreational values. (IUCN/ UNEPO, WWF,1991) Protected areas must be conserved to protect the wealth of biological diversity, natural landscape beauty and cultural features they contain. Management of such areas has been taken up by groups and authorities from the public, private and voluntary sectors of society often with very different objectives. Management of protected areas is a complex task whereby all aspects from ideas to research to implementation must be carefully considered so as to protect an area for all of its attributes.

Environmental non-governmental organisations (NGO's) are independent, voluntary organisations that are concerned in one way or another with the environment in which we live. Many such NGO's form a vital part of the management of protected areas. The Royal Society for the Protection of Birds(RSPB) is a non-governmental organisation that is responsible for the management of large areas of countryside within the UK protected area network. Through its work the RSPB aims to promote the diversity, populations and distribution of birds and other wildlife. However, in order to achieve this, the RSPB have to perform a number of roles that are often thought not to apply to environmental NGO's.

A questionnaire survey was developed and sent to 100 people in an attempt to examine the attitudes of the public regarding the role of RSPB within protected area management and to assess public awareness of the extent of the work that the RSPB carry out. Results acquired from the survey highlighted two main points. Firstly, most people have heard of RSPB but few are aware of the extent of roles that the RSPB must perform in order to achieve its aims, and secondly, results from the survey showed a preference for other organisations and government in particular to be actively involved in protected area management. Despite the invaluable contribution of NGO's to the conservation of protected areas, they will never manage them successfully alone.

Working from within: A Conceptual Framework For Development of a Network of Marine Protected Areas in the Hudson-James Bay Ecosystem(Canada)

Miriam Fleming(2005)

This study examines applicability of the marine protected area concept to supporting biological and cultural diversity and sustaining ecological integrity and health of a low arctic inland sea encapsulated by a nation state. In recognition of a unique relationship between arctic indigenous people and the marine environment it also addresses whether a network of marine protected areas may provide new opportunities for community development through generation and use of western and indigenous scientific information and knowledge in its design, development and management.

The study originates and is conducted from the level of a remote indigenous community situated on an island within the vast inland sea. As such, the etic meaning and context of marine protected areas are discerned at international, national and sub-regional levels in order to understand and ascertain the feasibility of designing and developing a purposeful and effective network of marine protected areas in the study area.

It was found while conducting the research that purpose and clarity are paramount in the establishment and development of marine protected areas. In this particular case, the purpose of establishing a network of marine protected areas would be to inform of ecological processes through research, monitoring and modelling activities, and serve as areas in which to measure human disturbance and impacts from the predominantly large scale external threats of climate change, hydroelectric generation, pollutants and contaminants.

To this effect, the study has found from participant observation and published and secondary documents that both formal top-down and community based bottom-up approaches to design and establishment of a network of marine protected areas is required. Therefore, an integrated approach is extended to developing an inclusive process for situating marine protected areas within the ecological and geopolitical contexts from which they are derived.

Managing the Impossible: Chaos Theory and Protected Landscapes

Iain Gardiner (1997)

This thesis will aim to contrast the differing rational and chaotic styles of organisational management, and will examine the extent to which each has a part to play in Protected Landscape management and planning. Initially, contemporary global problems confronting the biosphere are introduced, before the roles of sustainable development and biodiversity conservation are discussed as means of stemming the tide of environmental degradation. The role of protected areas and protected landscapes in particular are emphasised as tools to achieving a sustainable world.

Various challenges and opportunities facing the Protected Landscape designation are examined, and chaos theory is advanced as an alternative management paradigm. The debate then broadens to encompass the scientific basis of chaos theory, and goes on to stress its relevance to this arena of study. In the light of the findings of nonlinearity, the rational approach to management is questioned, and the foundations of Stacey's organisational chaos theory are described. These tenets are then examined where they are being successfully used in the worlds of business and environmental NGO management.

The implications of chaos theory for current forms of Protected Landscape management and planning are discussed, before prescriptions are advanced to enable environmental management at the edge of chaos. The thesis concludes with the discovery that chaos theory forms a new description and rationale for much of what is already happening on the ground, and suggests that nonlinearity could therefore form a new frame of reference for Protected Landscape managers.

Chasing the Golden Dragon: A community-based tourism initiative in Sai Kung's Country Parks, Hong Kong

Julia Gilkes (1999)

Tourism has become one of the world's largest industries, impacting not only local and national economies but also environments. As is stands, the tourism industry risks destroying the environment on which it depends and acclaims much of its success. Protected Landscapes, highly rated for their natural beauty, have become "honey pots" or magnets for tourists and are consequently at risk of being "loved to death".

The sceptre of environmental degradation within the tourism industry can no longer go unchecked; the industry has responded with a new approach, "sustainable tourism". This concept attempts to balance the needs of all the key players involved in tourism: the visitor, the local community, the industry and the environment, while maximising the benefits and minimising the losses.

This approach offers potential for the future of protected landscapes and the tourism industry. Questions remain regarding the concept's ambiguity and possible implementation; this thesis looks at how a relationship between the two could enhance both protected landscapes and the tourism industry. In particular it looks at how East and West Sai Kung Country Park, Hong Kong could benefit from the introduction of tourism as part its overall management objectives.

Tourism is considered on a community-based level as a means to environmental and cultural conservation in the parks of Sai Kung. These parks are two of Hong Kong's most popular, where old Chinese houses stand abandoned, villagers lack a local economy, tourists to the park have nowhere to stay and the park's biodiversity is under threat from mass tourism developers. Tourism has not been considered an issue for the parks management.

A sustainable tourism development path is considered through a "community-based" initiative which looks at balancing the key players by allowing a coherent approach to evolve. As such, it applies to both environmental and societal issues, and the industry as a whole, not just one sector of it.

The title of this report "Chasing the Golden Dragon" is in keeping with the Chinese tradition. The Chinese are renowned for being hard-working; those living in Hong Kong say that "..Hong Kong asks for your sweat and sacrifice, your toil and your tolerance of others, your determination and your drive. In return she gives you her wealth..."In Chinese folklore, the "golden dragon" symbolises wealth, which for this thesis refers to the Sai Kung Country Parks. Hong Kong itself is said to be the dragon's lair, spawned by mountains running south from the Himalayas to the South China Sea. Reaching the tongue of flat land that now holds Sai Kung the mountains halt, dive below the sea and emerge as an island - Hong Kong. Hong Kong Island is said to be a dragon, turned to face its distant ancestors in China. The chase of the Golden Dragon represents the challenge confronting the future of the parks and their stakeholders.

Rock Climbing in Snowdonia National Park: its impact on the environment and the local economy

Andrew Neil Godber (2000)

Rock climbing is one of the most rapidly growing sports in the United Kingdom and, together with all other various outdoor activities which are growing in popularity, is a major component of the recreation tourism industry in the Snowdonia National Park. However, Snowdonia is a very fragile area, the rare and important habitats and ecosystems of which are easily damaged or destroyed, especially through the ever increasing number of people visiting the area. Tourism is however the largest industry in North Wales, providing a source of income for thousands of local people. In turn this is creating more local businesses and services in Snowdonia's towns and villages, all in an area which has seen massive unemployment, since its traditional industries of farming and slate quarrying have declined.

It is vital therefore that the tourism industry, especially with regard to such sports as rock climbing which directly use the environment of Snowdonia, become more sustainable, so that the local economy is improved without causing damage to the environment and culture of the area. This study looks at ways in which this can be achieved through co-operation and partnership building between stakeholders, thus working towards solutions to the major problems with regard to rock climbing in this area, such as traffic congestion, erosion of the mountains and access problems. The climbing communities views on the major points of interest have been gained through a questionnaire survey, the results of which form the basis for the analysis of the ways of helping protect Snowdonia National Park for future generations.

Away from the Honey pot: Potential for Redistributing Visitors in Solu-Khumbu District, Nepal

Ric Goodman (2002)

Sagarmatha National Park in Nepal(SNP) is visited by 22,000 tourists each year, drawn by the magnificence of the world's highest mountain. However, the relationship between the mountains and their traditional neighbours is threatened as never before by the unimpeded rise in visitor numbers, who place stresses on both the physical resources and the social fabric of the region.

Limiting tourist damage within the National Park and the surrounding region is imperative. Solu, to the south of the Park, is a suitable area for tourism. Close to Mount Everest, and with good views from the hilltops, Solu could present an alternative destination to tourists wishing to visit the area.

Various strategies need to be implemented to influence people away from the Park: marketing Solu as a distinct tourist destination, along with the development of infrastructure and services are fundamental in drawing visitors to the area.

This study ascertains whether visitors who desire to see Mount Everest and enjoy the varied cultural landscape of Nepal would be attracted by an alternative destination offering a lower altitude, less stressful trekking conditions and other diverse activities. The research also discovers what might be the most suitable marketing mechanisms for influencing people's decisions to choose Solu as an alternative destination to SNP.

The research conducted included a field survey of visitors to SNP and tour operators taking tourists to the region. These results were collated and a series of recommendations for the redistribution of visitors made.

The dissertation concludes that it would be extremely difficult to divert the existing tourist market away from the "honey-pot" of Mount Everest, rather that Solu constitutes an additional potential tourist market. However a number of recommendations are made to help stem the rise of visitor numbers to the National Park and persuade as many of these visitors to visit Solu instead.

Community Participation in Coastal Natural Resource Management: A case study of the Mombasa Marine National Park and National Reserve, Kenya.

Neil Gordon (1999)

This thesis examines the implications of integrated coastal zone management and participatory approaches on the coast north from Mombasa, in relation to the management of the natural resources found there. Global development in the concepts of marine and coastal protected areas, and the field of participation, is set out. This forms the base-line against which the case study is assessed. Mombasa North coast has a wide range of activities affecting it, including tourism development, the major port facility for East Africa, urban expansion, rapid population increase, a designated Marine National Park and Reserve, fishing interests, and Kenya's pilot Integrated Coastal Area Management (ICAM) programme.

The field research involved interviewing representatives from a variety of parties holding interests in the coastal zone, to ascertain perceptions of the partnership-style approaches to resource management. All parties thought that ICAM had the greatest opportunity for success in promoting community participation in the management and use of the Coast's resources. However, while local and national government bodies believed that ICAM had been a successful venture, non-government organisations and community groups were more sceptical. As in the general case around the globe, the reluctance of the authorities to release their hold on decision-making has left the disenfranchised aggrieved.

Mombasa was revealed to fall in line with what is considered the global norm. Significant and substantial progress has been made in establishing working practices aimed at increasing the responsibility and self-respect of the local population. However, a barrier has been reached where progress has come to a standstill as a consequence of the need - but reluctance(on the part of the authorities) - to hand power over to the community. Co-operation between the parties on the Coast has reached new heights, but those with limited access to power are still being disenfranchised of their rights and responsibilities in relation to resource management.

Species Inventory Compilation and the Basis on which Conservation Priorities are Established in Protected Areas

Theresa Greenaway (2002)

This thesis was prompted by a perceived need to ascertain whether certain aspects of the theory of protected area management equated with the practice. The aspects studied were species inventory compilation, and the establishment of conservation priorities. Two non government organisations, The Wildlife Trusts and the National Trust were studied. These were selected because of their broadly based wildlife interest and their countrywide network of managed reserves and properties, some of which were also within the boundaries of the wider network of protected landscapes in the UK - National Parks and Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty. There was particular reference to Surrey and Sussex Wildlife Trusts, and National Trust properties Black Down and Marley. The effects of the UK BAP on species compilation and conservation priorities were also evaluated. The management plan of Ebernoe Common Nature Reserve, West Sussex, was used as a case study.

It was found that species inventories for the Wildlife Trust reserves were not compiled systematically. Conspicuous taxa were often very well recorded, but records for other groups were often poor. Species inventories for National Trust properties were compiled more systematically, although there were often taxonomic gaps, and the length of time between biological evaluations was frequently in excess of ten years. Data storage in both organisations has improved considerably over the past few years, with the installation of computerised databases.

Conservation priorities in both organisations were largely habitat-based. In some instances, historical land-use was seen to be influential; so too were current trends in conservation "fashion", such as coppicing. In the case of Ebernoe Common, habitat, historical land-use and some of the species present in the Reserve all influenced proposed management, but difficult issues arose when new information became available. The UK BAP has also influenced conservation priorities, but its national Habitat and Species Action Plans were themselves not always founded on a comprehensive database.

The effects of human activity on the Lefini Game Reserve in the Republic of Congo during times of conflict: finding a solution to the extensive degradation.

Lindsey Grimshaw (2001)

There are many protected areas around the world that exist with human settlements within their boundaries. Of those protected areas some of the populations have been forced to move to the periphery whilst others have moved beyond.

The Lefini Game Reserve situated on the Bateke Plateau and Pool regions in the Republic of Congo is a protected area that was originally designated in the 1950' and is still in existence to the present day. However, the area has become badly degraded due to over exploitation of its natural resources by the local population, especially during times of conflict.

This study seeks to examine the problems and pressures to which protected areas are prone and the impact of resource degradation upon such areas. Also to provide alternative suggestions to the land utilisation and resource degradation, whilst offering effective management solutions.

This research aims to show that there is a significant need for improved and responsible management to be implemented within the Lefini Game Reserve, ensuring the protection and ultimate safeguarding of the remaining floral and faunal resources. It also reveals the need to involve the local population into taking responsibility for finding alternative solutions to their lifestyle in this protected area.

The Lefini Game Reserve is in desperate need of financial assistance if the degradation of its beautiful and unique environment is to be halted. If the Reserve is left for a few more years to languish in "paper park" status, there will be very little or no resources that remain of which to safeguard. Financial assistance must be complemented by an inclusive approach to management, involving all stakeholders, in order to alleviate the damage and suffering currently being inflicted in this sensitive area.

Integrating Conservation and Development in the Manu Biosphere Reserve

Andrew Halliday (1998)

Integrated Conservation and Development Projects (ICDPs) have developed as an approach to the management of natural resources in and around protected areas which aims to balance the needs of the local population, the environment and future generations. This dissertation presents a critical review of ICDPs in theory and practice, using the Manu Project, an ICDP based in the Manu Biosphere Reserve in Peru, as a case study. The central issue addressed is the extent to which ICDPs are successful in integrating conservation and development objectives.

Chapter One describes the origins of ICDPs. Chapter Two relates the origins and early history of the Manu Project. Chapter Three addresses issues related to the design and implementation of ICDPs from a theoretical standpoint; and this is complemented by a detailed analysis of the experience of the Manu Project in Chapter Four. Chapter Five compares and assesses some of the alternative approaches towards integrating conservation and development, including eco-development, co-management, stewardship and ecosystem-based management, which could be used to enrich or improve the ICDP model. Chapter Six describes how some of these approaches have been incorporated into the most recent revision of the design of the Manu Project.

The dissertation concludes that ICDPs cover a small band of options within the wide range of possibilities available, and should be seen as an appropriate response to a specific set of conditions, rather than as a "new paradigm" for the integration of conservation and development.

Local Agenda 21 in Wales

Alison Heal (1998)

This investigation of the Local Agenda 21 situation in Wales at the end of 1997, the achievement of its aims, and one of the conclusions, all required the first part of this thesis. Part I is therefore, everything the reader needs to know to understand Local Agenda 21. It concludes with a reduction of the complexity of Local Agenda 21 to four parallel principles for and of the Local agenda 21 process.

A survey questionnaire was designed from the theoretical basis of Part I to allow interpretation of the responses to address the following four aims, in Part II:

1. to evaluate understanding of the LA21 principles in Wales
2. to ascertain the degree of commitment to the identified principles
3. to identify the response in Wales to the challenge "to secure the social vision and the political responsibility" of LA21 for a sustainable future
4. to produce a snapshot of the LA21 situation in Wales at the end of 1997.

Interpretation of the survey responses has:

• identified a pattern of understanding of LA21 principles and process;
• ascertained that commitment is higher in theory than in practice, and is thought to be resource constrained;
• identified the various responses to the LA21 challenge;
• shown the fundamental, and practical and effective, importance of building partnerships for the Local Agenda 21 process;
• illustrated the need for greater co-ordination, sharing, and accessibility of information about and for Local agenda 21, at all levels.

The main conclusions, illustrated by the snapshot and the Local Agenda 21 situation in Ceredigion, are that the keys to Local agenda 21 - community-led participation and action for locally defined sustainable development strategies - are diverse, broad, locally relevant partnerships, and appropriate, accessible information. Future work in and for community led Local agenda 21 in Wales should be based on enabling such partnerships, and information exchange.

Mechanisms for controlling Rhododendron ponticum within old oak woodland, with particular reference to Glengarriff Harbour & Woodlands Special Area of Conservation

Clare Heardman ( 2004)

'Old sessile oak woods with Ilex and Blechnum in the British Isles' is a habitat listed in Annex I of the EU Habitats Directive. Under the Directive, Ireland has a particular duty to protect this habitat. As a result, some 4300ha is protected within a network of protected areas known as Special Areas of Conservation(SACs). The most widespread threat to the biodiversity of the habitat is the alien invasive species Rhododendron ponticum, which occurs in around 75% of the designated woodlands.

Glengarriff Harbour and Woodlands SAC (Site code:90), centred on Glengarriff Woods Nature Reserve(302ha), contains the second largest area of old oak woodland in Ireland. Little has been published about the history of management in the Nature Reserve, but this paper suggests that the woodland is of ancient origin. However, no area has been unaffected by anthropogenic influences, including the introduction of R. ponticum. Mapping as part of this project indicates that the species occurs throughout the woodland. Although R. ponticum is subject to on-going control in the Nature Reserve, control in the privately owned areas is occurring on an ad hoc basis. This paper primarily uses land owner interviews to explore the reasons why R. ponticum is not being effectively controlled within the SAC as a whole.

The Glengarriff case-study, and a review of rhododendron control in Britain and Ireland, is then used as a basis for suggesting strategies and mechanisms for addressing the issue of R.ponticum in protected areas. Overall, it is concluded that in order to ensure the long-term survival of the old oak woodlands, a co-ordinated approach to rhododendron control is essential at a national level and that rhododendron control programmes in SACs must be strategic and, in most cases, cross-sectoral.

A Proposed National Park for the South Downs: Vision to Viability The Significance and Interpretation of Open-Air Recreation

Stephen Hopkins (2001)

The South Downs are an area of land located in the South/South East of England. They run east to west for 106 miles across East and West Sussex and East Hampshire. The area is presently designated as the Sussex Downs and East Hants areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty. In 1949, the area was suggested for National Park status as a result of the 1949 Hobhouse Report, but in 1951, when the first UK National Parks emerged, the South Downs were passed over for the designation on the grounds that they did not fulfil adequately the required criteria for National Park status. It was determined that the area was unable to provide sufficient opportunity for "open-air recreation".

The issue of recreation in the South Downs is still an issue today. In 1999, following the formation of the Countryside Agency, Government asked them to look again at the suitability of the South Downs for National Park status, particularly with respect to the interpretation of the criteria used in section 5 II(b) of the National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act of 1949.

This thesis examines the topics surrounding the topic of recreation in the South Downs, and attempts to draw out the key issues that opposers and supporters of the proposal have through the medium of semi, and loosely structured interviews, informal discussions with members of relevant conservation bodies, and a survey of the recreational users of the South Downs. Attempts have been made to gauge the significance that open-air recreation has on the South downs today, how this has changed since 1949 (in terms of the type of people seeking recreation, and the type of recreation sought) and ultimately to offer a balanced discussion on whether the most suitable designation for the South Downs is a National Park.

The Potential for Transboundary Collaboration in Conservation between the Amboseli Protected Area Complex, Kenya and the Kilimanjaro Protected Area Complex, Tanzania.

Paul Hotham (2001)

There is a renewed interest in transboundary collaboration(TBC) between protected areas. Africa has become a focal point for TBC. Within this context, the Amboseli and Kilimanjaro National Parks lie adjacent their international borders and present an opportunity for the concept to be tested. Literature, secondary data review and semi-structured interview techniques were used to gather the research data.

Many challenges facing protected areas can be alleviated, and significant conservation and peace benefits gained, through the enhanced management achieved via TBC. Impediments to TBC are most often attributed to socio-economic, political or financial problems. Dependent upon these, TBC can be initiated at a variety of levels and under a range of scenarios. Good practice states that it is vital that local communities are involved and that international treaties e.g. the MAB programme, may be used to provide the framework for TBC. A range of good practice advice is presented in the full text.

Both parks have significant problems that can be alleviated through TBC. However, there are a number of impediments rooted in politics and the structure of administrations that preclude high level collaboration. In addition, the parks are non-adjacent, divided by increasingly developed community land. The engagement of local communities and the need to find methods for integrating Conservation and Development is therefore essential. Amboseli's Biosphere Reserve and Kilimanjaro's World Heritage Site designations are "paper designations" and as such do not provide a suitable framework for collaboration. However, there are several areas of mutual interest that provide a focus for a bottom up initiation of TBC. Moreover, TBC initiated by the Park Wardens using established work areas avoids most of the identified impediments.

The research concludes that TBC is feasible between the Parks and a detailed list of recommendations is presented. The research aims were therefore successfully achieved.

Sustainable Management of Non Timber Forest Products in Community Forests. Champassak Province, Lao PDR

Warren Hoye (2005)

This thesis examines the management of Non Timber Forest Products( NTFP's) in Community Forests in Champassak Province of the Lao People's Democratic Republic by the communities living with, in and around those community forests. It charts the changes in the legal framework of land ownership and management in Laos, and how these changes made possible village level management of forests and forest resources. It shows how NTFPs are a major source of food, shelter, income and medicine for the majority of the Lao population and how some segments of society have a greater reliance on NTFPs.

It looks at a rural village in Laos, the availability of NTFPs in the village forest, how important NTFPs are to this rural community and what uses villagers make of NTFPs.

The thesis then turns to look at various processes used to implementing sustainable management of non timber forest products, what the results of those approaches were and the factors contributing to the success or failure of the approaches used. Also examined is an approach outside of conservation, that is of meeting peoples needs as a means of alleviating pressure on forest resources and allowing people the time to participate in management of NTFPs. Also discussed is how management of NTFPs led to increased conservation awareness in communities and communities becoming actively involved in conservation of their community forests.

In concluding there is a review of the sustainability of actions, what challenges are still to be faced and an outline of the principles and guidelines which were identified in the course of this study, which may be appropriate for application in other areas.

"Drawing the Line" - defining the boundaries of protected areas

Andrew Huckson (2001)

This paper sets out to examine the process of defining the limits of protected areas with particular reference to the UK context. The historical background of protected areas designation is explored followed by consideration of the validity of defining protected areas and the application of an integrated approach to protected area designation.

Various methodologies that may have an application in defining protected area boundaries are examined and evaluated. The approaches to the designation and boundary definition of two proposed new national parks in the New Forest and the South Downs are investigated. A questionnaire to investigate the views of professionals working in protected area management was prepared and forwarded to all National Parks and AONB's in England and Wales. Responses to the questionnaire are reviewed and analysed.

From consideration of the available methodologies, current work on the definition of new national parks and responses to the questionnaire, a simple methodology is evolved to direct the definition of protected area boundaries.

Non-Governmental Organisations and Marine Environmental Education in the West of Scotland

Allen Hughes (2002)

Marine environmental education, in its broadest sense, has been heralded as a fundamental and practical means of securing a more sustainable approach to managing the world's oceans. It has been shown to offer extensive possibilities in terms of raising awareness of issues, prompting critical thinking, instilling concern and motivating action towards responsible stewardship, at international to local level.

International case study experience has also identified the potential for Non Governmental Organisations (NGOs) to be key players in the effective application of marine environmental education, provided the support of other sectors is forthcoming.

This thesis assesses the worth of the NGO sector enhancing its role in marine environmental education in the West of Scotland. This was judged against the significance of the West of Scotland marine environmental resources, the threats faced, the strengths and limitations of the main NGOs operating within the area relative to other bodies, and the potential benefits that could be generated as a result of an active role by NGOs.

The research methodology comprises a rigorous but qualitative analysis of literature, website information and primary data from interviews and postal questionnaires.

The findings reveal that the West of Scotland marine environment possesses a diverse range of vital qualities, providing extensive environmental, economic, cultural, social, aesthetic and option value benefits. These are important at both the local and global scale and establish the area as one of major significance.

The research has found that the West of Scotland marine environment, like many marine areas globally, is under major threat. In this respect, the main body of opinion suggests that fishing and fish farming constitute the primary sources of threat, although it is evident that a lack of underlying research, poor relations between sectors and a lack of strategic planning is also compromising capacity to fully assess and react to the situation.

In exploring a vision of an ideal system of marine environmental education in the West of Scotland, the thesis has established that the NGO sector merits a key role within such a system. This is a particular reflection of NGOs campaign, lobbying and outdoor education strengths. It places the sector in a strong position to take a lead role in bringing about an audit of current marine environmental education resources, a national marine environmental education database and a marine national park, all of which are considered fundamental to optimising marine environmental education in the West of Scotland.

Further analysis has determined that, despite already having a substantial presence in marine environmental education, NGOs still have a significant gap to bridge in order to bring about their optimal role. They need to increase commitment to working together through their umbrella organisation, LINK; they should invest greater effort in resolving disputes, improving collaboration with other sectors and they need to overcome hurdles within the sector to secure a more balanced focus on marine matters relative to terrestrial projects. In addition, NGOs should also adopt more strategic approaches to planning, monitoring and evaluating their marine environmental education initiatives.

In assessing the worth of NGOs carrying out these tasks and enhancing their role in marine environmental education the research concluded that failure to enhance the role of the NGO sector in the particular case of the West of Scotland would mean that an optimal level of marine environmental education could not be reached. The shortfall would be significant, to the extent of threatening the capacity to sustain the substantial benefits derived from the West of Scotland marine environment for current and future generations.

The effectiveness of ICDPs in the management of a Protected Area System: A case study of ADMADE in the Kafue area, Zambia.

Hiroshi Imae (2000)

Protected Areas (PAs) play an important role in wildlife conservation, for example, by protecting them from environmentally destructive activities and buffering local people's demands for natural resources. Different types of Pas have different management objectives, thus enabling the management of a national PA system to be effective in the pursuance of wildlife conservation.

Integrated Conservation and Development Projects (ICDPs) have been highlighted as an effective means of involving local people in the wildlife management. ICDPs seek to encourage local people to conserve wildlife, by placing economic values on wildlife and giving local people economic incentives for conservation and sustainable use of these resources. The linkage between local people's appreciation of benefits from wildlife and their interests in conserving wildlife is critically analysed in a case study of ADMADE in Zambia.

Reviewing the history of the relationship between the management of PAs and local people's livelihood suggest that the conflicts between PA management and local people have been longstanding. ICDPs in the wildlife-rich areas are able to develop the area through construction of schools and clinics, and facilitate cooperative relationships between the wildlife department and local people. However, ICDPs fail to strengthen the local people's interests as custodian of wildlife, instead shifting their interest to the economic benefits to be derived from wildlife. Thus whilst ICDPs may reduce people's opposition to wildlife as long as they are benefiting, their demands for natural resources from the Pas remain persistent. These results suggest that there is a latent danger that local people may give up conservation altogether if more economically attractive activities are introduced.

Furthermore, the revenue from ICDPs is essential for the management of the whole PA system. Their role should, therefore, be much wider than is evident in this study; not only should they be developed to strengthen the local people's intrinsic interests in wildlife conservation, but they should also ensure a fully accountable and integrated management process.

Holistic Landscape Management in Ireland

Ferris Jay (1998)

Irish landscape is unique and of enormous natural, cultural ecological and economic value. However, intensive development is destroying the distinctiveness, character and value of many landscapes in Ireland and without sympathetic long-term management valuable landscapes will be changed beyond recognition before they can be appreciated by future generations. Holistic landscape management, which recognises the need to manage landscape as a whole, rather than in separate parts, could help to safeguard the landscape for the future whilst encompassing the need for development in a balanced manner. Hence this study aims to explore the potential for holistic landscape management in Ireland.

The research asks three main questions. Firstly it asks how the Irish landscape is managed and how the management system(s) in place contribute to holistic landscape management. Secondly it investigates how holistic approaches to landscape management are being applied in the Irish landscape and finally it examines how holistic approaches to landscape management can be integrated into current management system(s).

The research focuses on cultural landscapes, those that are shaped by the relationship between nature and culture, hence the holistic approaches discussed will be "people" centred as well as addressing the needs of natural landscape elements. There is also a focus on rural landscapes, rather than those in urban or suburban settings.

This document aims to provide the reader with an understanding of the complex nature of landscape and the even more complex relationship between man and the landscape. It will brief the reader on landscape management issues and will give examples of holistic landscape management approaches currently being attempted in the Republic of Ireland.

In concluding, the document will provide recommendations on how landscapes in Ireland can be managed in a more holistic manner for the future, in the hope that their immense value can be safeguarded for future generations.

The Development and Application of Biodiversity Conservation Approaches with Particular Emphasis on Lessons from Papua New Guinea and Lao PDR

Bruce Jefferies (2000)

This thesis is a record of lessons and experiences that the writer has gained as a result of developing and applying the Integrated Conservation and Development (ICAD) process. Many of these have direct relevance to the conservation challenges which need to be addressed in many other places that are striving to find the elusive linkages between the conservation of biodiversity, on one hand, and sustainable community-based development on the other.

The various components of the thesis detail the major elements that need to be integrated into project design and application. These ideas are directed, primarily but not exclusively, towards the designers, donors and the teams or individuals who implement biodiversity conservation projects and who intend to apply sustainable development practices as an incentive for rural communities to actively participate in the conservation programme.

It is expected that the suggestions will, in some small way, contribute to swinging the balance, that by all informed accounts is heavily in favour of the unsustainable exploitation of our planet's natural resource base. Realistic objectives, principles and methodologies, many of which are based on field-related trials and experience, are provided, as are a number of personal insights. These have been translated into a framework that outlines what I consider to be the inputs necessary to achieve meaningful contribution to global, regional, national and community-based conservation objectives.

Material for this work draws on the writer's experiences gained while working with and developing the Integrated Conservation and Development process in several countries and is supplemented by the review of the appropriate literature. The end result is, hopefully, a contribution to a better understanding of the challenges that the proponents of biodiversity conservation need to consider.

Experience gained during more than thirty years as a protected area practitioner have provided the basis of this work. These include; a total of about 18 years working in conservation and protected area management in New Zealand; 5 years working on protected area management issues in Nepal (including two and a half years living in a remote village at 12,000 feet as an advisor/project manager for the establishment of the Sagarmatha - Mount Everest - National Park); chief Technical Advisor(5 years) to the United Nations Development Programme - Global Environment Facility Project in Papua New Guinea; and at the time of writing, more than 4 years as the Chief Technical Advisor for the Lao PDR World Bank-Global environment Facility - National Biodiversity Conservation Areas project.

The various suggestions that are presented are based on the notion that project planning and implementation methods need to be carefully designed and carried out. To address conservation imperatives we need to build on existing experience. We also need to articulate, into meaningful management action some of the often-poignant lessons that have been learned about translating biodiversity conservation using development incentives into meaningful achievements.