Thesis Abstracts P-T

Forest Fragmentation and Interior Patch characteristics in the Upper Bruce Peninsula, Ontario, Canada

Scott Parker (1999)

Forest fragmentation has been described as a factor contributing to the decline in regional and global biodiversity. Using satellite imagery (LANDSAT TM) a geographic information system ( SPANS GIS) and an ecosystem management approach, this study developed a method to assess forest fragmentation and interior habitat conditions in and around a protected area. In the context of the Upper Bruce Peninsula National Park (52,700 ha) was used as the case study. Based on a literature review, the effects of forest fragmentation are discussed, including area, sample, exclusion, crowding, isolation, extirpation and edge effect.

The SPANS GIS model developed to assess forest patch and interior habitat is novel. Forested land was defined as a treed area with a closed canopy (i.e.,> 70%) forest interior habitat was defined using a 100m buffer from the patch edge. Non-forested areas within a forest patch less than 1ha(holes) in size were removed. By transforming a quadtree (sophisticated raster) to a layer (polygon) forest and interior habitat patches were uniquely classified and area and perimeter values were calculated.

Results determined that 73% (38,372ha) of the study area is forested. Of the 3,062 forest patches, 63 have an interior habitat condition (19,812ha,n=445 interior patches). Several patches are large enough to support interior sensitive species. Forest interior habitat is lost when forest patch size decreases to 63ha. To some degree the landscape is naturally heterogeneous, but fragmentation from anthropogenic sources, primarily road corridors, is clearly evident. Fragmentation remains a conservation concern in this area. Management implications and recommendations to protect the ecological integrity of the upper Bruce Peninsula through land use practices, corridors, and tax incentives is discussed.

Bushmeat Obtained Through snaring in the Tsavo Ecosystem

Asgar Pathan (2004)

This thesis investigates the issue of Bushmeat obtained in the Tsavo ecosystem through snaring. Bushmeat is wild game killed for income or subsistence. The bushmeat trade is a focus of global concern.

Snaring is done through setting up wire traps on animal paths in and around the parks and reserves with the sole purpose of catching wild animals for bushmeat.

Snaring for bushmeat remains a major threat to the survival of wild animals and their habitat. It is estimated that Kenya has lost 50% of its wildlife in the last 20 years to snaring and poaching.

Many factors determine the intensity of bushmeat utilization and trade in the Tsavo ecosystem, but increased poverty, human population density, availability of snares and human wildlife conflict in this region have accounted for most of the pressure on wildlife for bushmeat.

Hunting has always been a way of life for the local community but commercialising is clearly unsustainable. The scale of bushmeat consumption is threatening the survival of species in the Tsavo ecosystem, which may have a serious impact upon food security and livelihoods. There is therefore an urgent need to develop successful initiatives that will promote the long-term sustainability of the bushmeat trade protect the threatened biodiversity.

The Nature of Golf: The conservation role of the golf course in the protection of the European landscape.

Jeremy Pern (1999)

The European landscape has been constantly modified since human settlement began. Land use patterns and traditions have changed dramatically in recent years as a result of economics, technology and population movements. This thesis examines the role of golf courses in a dynamic, fast changing landscape with special reference to their potential for conserving and protecting European landscape and environmental heritage in line with current conservation and development philosophy.

The European Union's land use planning procedures, sustainable land use strategies, common agricultural policies, protected landscape conservation policies and environmental legislation as they apply to aspects of golf course developments are analysed.

The increasing numbers of golf courses in Europe in recent years have resulted in opposition and conflict, usually concerning the environmental and ecological issues. The arguments put forward by those opposing golf course developments are examined.

A survey of 70 recently built golf course facilities in 14 European countries was carried out. Six principal issues were examines: tourism, management and economics, personnel, course maintenance, irrigation, and the natural environment. The survey findings give rise to conclusions concerning current management methods and the effects of golf courses on the environment. The survey results help to identify areas where attention may be focused in order for golf courses to better exploit their potential contribution to the preservation and protection of landscapes and cultural heritage.

Suggestions are made regarding ways of improving the conservation role of golf courses in the protection of the European landscape through more appropriate land use planning systems and more sensitive golf course design, construction and subsequent management.

Golf courses do have a positive role to play in the conservation and protection of the European landscape in line with European Union environmental policies. In addition golf course developments can conform to current conservation and protected landscape thinking as expressed by leading non-government environmental organisations such as the IUCN.

Active Recreation in Protected Areas: A case study of mountain biking in Snowdonia National Park

Ben Pykett (2000)

This study explores the changing nature of recreation in the UK National Parks. The last twenty years has seen an explosion in "new" active forms of rural recreation. The National Park Authorities of England and Wales have responded to this management challenge in a variety of ways. Through a broad analysis of the treatment of cycling in the Welsh National Parks, as well as an in depth case study of how one of these Park Authorities, Snowdonia, have attempted to accommodate one particular form of active recreation, mountain biking, this study interrogates the numerous difficulties associated with both composing and implementing appropriate recreation management strategies. At a practical level the study draws attention to the effectiveness of various management approaches and makes recommendations for possible improvements. Further, on a more conceptual level, the study uses the example of recreation management in the National Parks to draw attention to the wider debate that exists around issues of inclusion, exclusion, and control in rural areas.

Sustainable Tourism and the Scotland District National Park, Barbados

Geoffrey Ramsey (1998)

The concept of sustainable tourism in Barbados as an alternative approach to the mass tourism currently being promoted is examined herein. The study is underpinned by the proposed designation of the island's first terrestrial protected landscape situated in the last remaining wilderness region, the Scotland District.

Barbados is a small island developing state with a fragile, open economy which is dependent on a limited natural resource base. The island gained independence from Britain in 1966, and has the third oldest Parliament in the Commonwealth. It supports one of the highest population densities in the world with approximately 256,000 residents occupying a total land area of 430 square kilometres. In 1997, visitor arrivals reached record levels, with over 500,000 cruise ship passengers and 450,000 long stay visitors entering Barbados, approximately four times its population base.

Although public sector strategies to promote increases in visitor arrivals are being planned in earnest, the concept of environmental and social carrying capacities for the island's tourism industry has not yet been adequately addressed. If left unchecked, environmental degradation in Barbados, including beach and soil erosion. Loss of coral reefs, flooding, traffic congestion, increased sedimentation loads in the coastal zone, and reduction in the quality of coastal waters may be exacerbated despite the current measures being taken by government to address these issues.

The island's economic development is traced through sugar agriculture. This industry dominated the history of Barbados through the colonial period of development and moulded its current landscape which is largely deforested. It is also relatively low in terrestrial biodiversity as compared to neighbouring Caribbean territories. With the consistent rise in tourism as a major economic force in Barbados over the past few decades and its potential to impact negatively on the natural environment, a number of development-related issues are presented, including land use practices, solid waste management, water resources, national transport issues, and tourism diversification strategies. The need for the adoption of a more sustainable programme of development for the island is argued with a primary focus on sustainable tourism underpinned by the World Conservation Union (Category V) Protected Landscape model.

Through the efforts of the Barbados National Trust, a National Park for the Scotland District has been proposed several times during the past thirty years but not previously adopted by the government. The focal point of this thesis is the application of a sustainable tourism strategy for a National Park in the Scotland District, with an extended boundary to those formerly proposed, which would incorporate existing nature tourism attractions in the central regions of the island. This type of strategy applied within the framework of rural landscape protection measures in a statutorily designated protection area (IUCN Category V) is deemed the most appropriate for the island at this time. A legal management framework is proposed which would support resource protection of natural, cultural and heritage features across the Scotland District.

Due to the loss of original forest cover, with only approximately 2% woodland areas remaining, this thesis recommends the establishment of five forest reserves in Barbados, all located within the Scotland District. This forest reserve concept would be linked to a network of Heritage Trails in support of "alternative" tourism which is promoted as an appropriate strategy for Barbados as a small island developing state and a preferred option to mass tourism.

Sustainable tourism, particularly on lands in public ownership, can act as a catalyst for the development of the Scotland District National Park as a Protected Landscape. Ultimately, legal designation of the Scotland District as a protected area is considered desirable to consolidate management strategies. Since the process of establishing a legal framework for the park management has been protracted, a devolved "bottom-up" approach empowering all rural community stakeholders to assume full participation in sustainable activities, would be a more practical approach to achieving a protected area which integrates conservation principles with development. In addition, public education and awareness programmes will play an important role in making the paradigm shift to sustainable tourism in the Scotland District.

A Critical Review of the Management of the Defence Estate - Britain's Most "Protected" Landscape

Christopher Rayfield (2001)

Under the 1892 Military Lands Act, the Ministry of Defence owns some 240,000 acres of land scattered over more than 3,000 sites and which together hold most types of conservation designation in the UK and Europe (MOD.2,Lieu,pers.com)

These training areas are owned by the MOD, held by the Army Training Estates and managed by professionally qualified persons in the Defence Estates Organisation. Defence Estates acts as a land agent and is responsible for the day to day and long term management of the training areas in co-operation with their military and civilian users, often under great pressure from environmental groups and from a general lack of both financial and personnel resources.

Defence Estates are assisted in their task by professionals in both statutory and non-statutory organisations at the planning level, and these same organisations, plus volunteer workers do much practical management work on the defence estate.

However, the management of the Defence Estate has been found to be lacking. Aside from personnel and financial resources, a major problem is what appears to be an overly convoluted management system, and a reluctance to make a leap to new technology due to poor understanding and lack of training. A further problem for the management of the defence estate has been found to be the great level of oversight at government level, leading to poor policy decisions at national and local level rather than allowing local assessment to take precedence over government bureaucracy.

Overall, this thesis has found that the MOD owns an estate, which sets a fine example to other landowners, but the main threat to the estate is its overall owners and paymasters, who continually threaten it through bureaucracy and under resourcing.

Intergovernmental Collaboration :A Viable Step in building Canada's system of Protected Areas

Ken Richards (2005)

Established as 'islands of hope', protected areas are in danger of isolation and loss unless connected as networks or as systems in the broader landscape. Focusing principally on experience in Canada, this study investigates the ability of governments to lead and to collaborate as partners in undertaking this ambitious but necessary task.

A review was undertaken of partnership characteristics in the public sector and in protected areas in different parts of the world. This underlined partnership's function as an integrative process involving the ability of organisations to work together in a dynamic and evolving setting, while at the same time overcoming a basic institutional tendency to act independently. The lessons learned from the review resulted in the preparation of a framework of principles applicable to the analysis of protected area partnerships.

Turning to the establishment of protected areas in Canada, the study describes the opportunities to establish ecosystem-based partnerships based on intergovernmental collaboration. In 1992, for example, federal, provincial and territorial ministers responsible for parks agreed to establish protected area systems across the country. In reality, each government acted independently resulting in a fragmented system of protected areas, despite strongly worded advice from experts that governments collaborate more actively.

Three national park areas were selected for detailed study of eco-system based partnerships using the framework of principles to collect information and opinion from several sources, including people directly involved. The outcomes are positive in each case, with partnership structures providing a foundation for the application of ecosystem based planning and management. The cases stand as examplars of the potential in Canada to establish protected area systems if governments collaborate and involve other parties as partners, such as local communities, academe and non-profit organisations. A course of action is recommended to correct a missed opportunity on the part of Parks Ministers.

Management Planning in Protected Areas and the Importance of Monitoring as an Integral Part of the Process

Johannes Robinson ( 2003)

The thesis researches the integration of monitoring into management plans. It is now accepted as a basic principle of protected area conservation that every protected area should have a management plan. In most countries, the presence of management plans for protected areas are mandatory. The management plan guides and controls the efficient implementation of pre-selected criteria to protected area resources, the uses of the area, and the development of facilities needed to support that management and use. Central to such a plan are clear and tangible policies that are developed from priority issues in the protected area. A good policy in the management plan states the goal that the policy aims to achieve, lists objectives that will achieve the goals and lists the activities that have to be completed in order to fulfil the requirements of the objectives.

Monitoring too is becoming increasingly important. Protected area managers are required to justify their actions and show their accomplishments in reaching their goals and objectives. Protected area managers also need monitoring data and information in order to navigate the road ahead and to adjust their priorities if monitoring indicates that management is on the wrong track.

Management plans and monitoring cannot exist in isolation and should form part of the general management system that a protected area embraces (or accepts). The thesis discusses the management style most suited for a specific protected area, places the role of pro-active plans in context of the overall system, and incorporates the adaptive management style into the writing of management plans.

The thesis then evaluates two case studies in order to evaluate the integration of monitoring into management plans. Management plans are the framework for efficient functioning of a specific protected area over a specified period and its use is to guide protected area personnel in management decisions over this specified period. It is therefore necessary to include some information on monitoring in the management plan. By evaluating the case studies and discussing the results, the study makes conclusions and recommendations on the degree to which management plans should include information about monitoring.

Local Community Involvement in National Park Management in Italy: The Majella National Park Case Study

Francesca Romano (2000)

In Protected Area (PA) management the involvement of local communities is no longer considered an option but a necessity in order to increase the efficiency and effectiveness of management and, not least, its social equity. This particularly valid throughout Europe as well as in Italy, where PAs are extensively inhabited and where natural and cultural resources are strictly linked.

Collaborative Management (CM) i.e. a situation in which all or some of the relevant stakeholders are involved in a substantial way, is not a fixed model, but assumes diverse forms and degrees according to the environmental, economic and social environment. In the European context, the EU is fully supportive of this approach. French Regional Parks, UK National Parks and in particular the Scottish ones, have applied this philosophy through new laws, adopting specific tools for improving participation or developing wide consultation campaigns. In Italy, which has recently established a number of new National Parks (NPs), the involvement of local communities is assured by law, through the so called Comunita del Parco (CdP), a consultative structure, which includes all the local authorities.

The research, which assesses the type and level of participation of the local community in the Majella NP, highlights a considerable effort by the Park board in involving the population through the CdP, especially for the realisation of the Management Plan (MP). Nonetheless this form of CM shows clear weaknesses and limitations. Not only is the CdP inadequate because it has been created through a "top down" approach and is susceptible to political pressures, but it represents the only form of CM, which as a result doesn't go beyond simple consultation. The quality and level of information for the public is low, attention to public relations (PR) is negligible, and people's awareness of the Park is more linked to its resrictions and limitations than to its advantages. Consequently people's participation could be considered very passive. Furthermore CM in the Majella NP is at a very preliminary stage, and is often confused with information giving or awareness raising. In synthesis it is no more than a token gesture.

In the medium term, most of the efforts of the Park should be focused on preparation for effective participation, which includes improvement of the level and quality of communication with the local community, improvement of the efficiency of the existing bodies and structures, and, subsequently, the creation of participatory activities alternative or parallel to the existing ones.

Community Based Conservation of Senkele Swayne's Hartebeest Sanctuary

Fassil Tekle Rosario (1997)

The protected area chosen for the purpose of the present study was Senkele Swayne's Hartebeest Sanctuary. This sanctuary is found in the southern part of Ethiopia and is mainly located within the Oromia Regional Government. It is located in an area characterised by three main land use practices: wildlife conservation, traditional agro-pastoralism and mechanised agriculture.

The justification for undertaking the present study under the title "Community-Based Conservation of Senkele Swayne's Hartebeest Sanctuary", was in order to look into the wildlife resource situation of the sanctuary along with the local communities living around it. As a result of the undertaken study which lasted from February to October 1996, the following tasks were carried out:

• the present population status of ten large wild mammal species of the Senkele Sanctuary was assessed and more information on the Swayne's Hartebeest concerning its sex, age ratios and preferred vegetation types was obtained;
• the vegetation composition of the fallow grassland type found outside the sanctuary was assessed;
• the possibility of improving the palatability of the grass species in the sanctuary through the use of controlled burning and seeding;
• the impact of the activities of the local communities living around on the resource found in the sanctuary were assessed.

As a result of undertaking the above mentioned activities, useful recommendations that are helpful to the future management of the sanctuary and that are believed to bring about harmonious coexistence between the sanctuary's authority and the communities living around it were suggested.

Measuring the Effectiveness of Protected Landscape Management

Keith Rowe (2003)

This research project sought to develop an approach to measuring the effectiveness of management actions within the Stonehenge World Heritage Site. It began with the desire to narrow the gap between policy initiatives and achievement of practical implementation. The hypothesis suggested that information on monitoring and management action could lead to an approach integrated with the area management plan. The concepts behind World Heritage Sites (taking Stonehenge as a case study), monitoring, documentation of data and the management of change are discussed, with information being sourced from a survey of World Heritage Sites around the world.

An approach was developed around the National Trust's Land Use Plan for the Stonehenge Estate. Three key Land Use Plan policies were selected as a representative sample. These targeted the removal of fences (to improve landscape character), the expansion of grassland and removal of woodland (to improve the setting of monuments and reduce the impact of ploughing and root damage) and an increase in the area of open access (to improve both the physical and intellectual access to Stonehenge).

The selected measure for performance monitoring was an archaeological condition survey. Data was collected, stored and analysed in a digital form through a Geographical Information System. Presentation of the results was in map, photograph and graph formats. The key objective was to assess whether an approach could be developed that identified if management action had been effective in maintaining the values on which the Stonehenge World Heritage Site had been inscribed in 1986. Assessment was also made as to whether the approach could be used to identify if certain management actions were actually contributing to the erosion of the archaeological monuments in the area.

The project identified key problems with the approach and tried to assess its operational value, measuring it against the research objectives. To conclude, ways of improving the approach in both short and long term were suggested.

Evaluating the Effectiveness of Partnerships in Protected Areas : The Kahalla Pallekele Human Elephant Conflict Project "Wana Jana Mithuro Sanvidanaya", Sri Lanka

Sarah Sanders (1998)

In Sri Lanka the needs of an expanding population are placing increasing stress on Protected Areas (PA). It is evident that the Department of Wildlife Conservation cannot address these pressures alone so alternative management strategies are required. Partnerships such as those developed in a Protected Landscape (PL) approach may be one way forward. Partnerships are not a new concept for Sri Lanka as the Kahalla Pallekele Human Elephant conflict (KPHEC) project shows.

Located in villages around the Kahalle Pallekele Wildlife Sanctuary and implemented by a 4NGO coalition, the goal of the KPHEC project was to mitigate the conflict between human and elephant by strengthening the capacity of local communities to deal with the issue. The effectiveness of the 4NGO coalition was not evaluated during or after the project despite it being considered a pilot for future conservation initiatives.

As the process of partnership development and its evaluation is relatively new, the coalition is currently seeking funding for a second phase, and Sri Lanka is trying to meet its biodiversity commitments, the aim of research was threefold: to develop criteria which could be used to evaluate the effectiveness of partnerships in PA/Natural Resource (NR) management; to use the criteria to evaluate the effectiveness of the 4NGO coalition and from these findings make recommendations which feed into the design of the second phase and for future PA/NR partnerships in Sri Lanka.

Research was conducted in Sri Lanka between June and October, 1988. The results indicate that for a partnership to be effective, the identification of who is involved and the process of its development is equally important as the outputs. Evaluation should be an integral part of the process. It requires sufficient time. The recommendations attempt to address the challenges this raises for the design of the second phase and for PA/NR management in Sri Lanka.

Relationship Marketing and Eco-Tourism in Protected Landscapes: towards the Elan Valley Recreational Management Plan, 1997. A Case Study.

Gunjan Saxena (1998)

This study examines the issue of recreation and eco-tourism planning management in protected landscapes, especially in the UK context. An important focus of the study is the potential application of relationship marketing (used primarily in the corporate sector to form long-term ties with the consumer) as a means of promoting eco-tourism, which is fast becoming an essential component in the future management strategies of the protected landscapes. Both the planning and development of protected landscapes and their recreational use require careful and effective management to ensure that the quality and character of the resource are maintained for the enjoyment of the future generations of visitors and rural communities. Eco-tourism can act as a tool for conservation to regulate human exploitation of the natural and cultural resources of protected landscapes, and as an agent of sustainable development and change. What needs to be stressed, however, is that without control and responsibility there is almost inevitably the possibility of over-reaching of some or all capacity limits of the protected landscapes. Relationship marketing is suggested as an important external customer orientation measure to garner the support of visitors to achieve the aims and objectives of the protected landscapes. This coupled with the setting of appropriate internal quality standards for the protected landscapes employees as part of Total Quality Management (TQM) is stressed to achieve excellence in the delivery of the service to visitors and to strongly communicate the protected landscape mission "the reason for its being". This underlines the need for internal marketing to sell the protected landscape mission and its objectives to the employees without whose commitment, the process of building strong ties with the eco-tourists through relationship marketing can never successfully be achieved. As a factor for change, relationship marketing can have an important effect on the future form of the management structure of the protected landscapes. In this context, it can help the protected landscape managers to not only build long term ties with the eco-tourists but also to respond to any development proposal within the protected landscape in a manner resilient enough to respond positively to a changing global environment and societal structure. Similarly, pursuance of service quality as part of relationship marketing could influence the extent to which customer franchise or intense visitor loyalty can be generated to thwart the manipulations of irresponsible tour operators or tourist markets (insensitive to the resources conservation aims) to guide the future course of tourist activities.

Thus, relationship marketing as a management approach has far reaching implications. The present study emphasises its crucial role in building long-term ties with the eco-tourists, but it can easily be used, in a much wider management context, to usher in an inclusive type of management structure and collective decision making, to ensure compatible resource management practices that minimise human disturbance of eco-systems and avoid actions with irreversible consequences. In the context of changing physical and economic circumstances, market forces and government policies, relationship marketing is set to become an important tool for managing effectively both macro and micro-level components of any proactive approach to instil sensible environmental stewardship among all key stakeholders, unique to each individual protected landscape.

This thesis is both theoretical and empirical. The empirical evidence is drawn from the Welsh Water Elan Valley Estate, Powys, to examine the importance of relationship marketing in building customer care and generating both their financial and moral support for conservation. This is illustrated by means of proposals for specific components towards a new recreational management plan for the Elan Valley, with a strong thrust on relationship marketing. The 1993 Management Plan for the Welsh Water Elan Valley Estate lacked not only the recreation component but also a section on marketing.

Therefore, Part II of this thesis aims to establish a framework for the management and promotion of eco-tourism in the Elan Valley, emphasising both the application of the relationship marketing concept and that of other pertinent issues (for example, the political and legal contexts; local participation; and the attitudes and aspirations of visitors). The proposals illustrate not only that implementation of relationship marketing can be incorporated in a conventional management plan, but also that, through sound management practices, eco-tourists can become effective and important partners in protected landscapes management necessary to make them the ultimate partners in protected landscapes management. An important avenue of investigation has been to link together two issues of eco-tourism and relationship marketing to achieve sustainable resource use practices in the future as protected landscapes move from being a mere accessory to being a major and necessary part of national economies all over the world.

The Role of Host Communities in Tourism Development in Protected Natural Areas of the Dominican Republic

Thomas Schaub (1999)

In many countries around the world, tourism in protected natural areas is advocated by politicians and conservationists, because it is generally viewed as a means for enhancing nature conservation. Tourism can contribute to the social development of host communities and provide an economic alternative for the populations in the periphery of national parks.

This thesis seeks firstly to analyse whether tourism to protected areas is actually promoted in the Dominican Republic. Secondly, it will be assessed, whether local people really benefit from and participate in planning for, and decision making on, tourism development. Consideration will also be given to the view of the community leaders concerning the cultural impacts of tourism. Thirdly, the specific role of local women will be discussed. Research was carried out in five protected areas.

The number of tours to protected areas has enormously increased in the Dominican Republic over the last five years. Foreign visitor numbers clearly outweigh those of nationals. Key actors in protected area tourism include the Department for Ecotourism and Environment of the Ministry of Tourism, the National Directorate of Parks, tour operators, tourists, and non-governmental conservation organisations.

With the exception of the community of Mano Juan, part of the host population in each of the study areas receives economic benefits from tourism. However, not in all instances, tourism can be considered as a true alternative to traditional economic activities. The distribution of benefits among the host populations varies from community to community. Moreover, revenues from tourism have not been used to improve infra-structural and social services in the host communities.

Tourism principally affects the cultural values in those communities, where there is conventional beach tourism beside that to protected areas. Host communities that lie far away from any seaside tourist area appear not to face any problems of altered lifestyles and eroded traditions.

The degree of participation of communities in planning for and decision making on tourism development varies from area to area. It ranges from mere consultation in the case of the host communities of Parque Nacional del Este to the collaborative management of the Laguna de Oviedo in the Jaragua National Park.

Most women in the study areas cannot easily disengage themselves from their traditional functions in the family and the economic dependence on their husbands or other male family members. Some women's groups, however, attempt to benefit economically from tourism in a direct way by planning and implementing their own initiatives.

Finally, the thesis makes recommendations concerning the above issues. Protected area tourism should be managed on the basis of management plans and contribute to the improvement of social services and infrastructure in host communities. Moreover, it is suggested to raise the admission fee to protected areas. Planning and management of tourism must be generally directed towards environmental, social and economic sustainability.

The Unfenced Desert: Towards a strategy for ecotourism development in protected areas in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

Philip Seddon (2000)

Since 1986 the National Commission for Wildlife Conservation and Development (NCWCD) has been charged with the protection of wildlife in Saudi Arabia, principally through the creation and management of a network of protected areas. until recently the NCWCD protected area estate, numbering some 14 sites, has been managed through a preservationist approach under which local communities and other stakeholders have been denied access to natural resources, and receive few benefits. The NCWCD has acknowledged that this approach is unsustainable, particularly in the face of shrinking government funding.

Ecotourism, i.e., nature based tourism that protects the environment and enhances the well-being of local communities, provides a potential solution to these problems. The value of both domestic and international tourism is recognised in Saudi Arabia and moves are underway to develop the national tourism industry. However, tourism development in Saudi Arabia has proceeded without environmental protection regulations, and negative impacts are already evident in high-use regions.

The NCWCD has a window of opportunity in which to develop ecotourism within selected protected areas; such development should be co-ordinated within a comprehensive strategy for ecotourism. Such a strategy would, inter alia, ensure that the principles of true ecotourism are upheld, and would provide examples of best practice for national planning and regulation.

This study aims to set out a framework for strategic planning for eco-tourism within Saudi Arabia's wildlife protected areas, by drawing on a review of the current state of the tourism industry, and on an examination of public attitudes to outdoor recreation, wildlife and protected areas.

The draft framework presented here is built around a vision statement; four objectives relating to conservation, education, recreation and community participation; seven general principles considering conservation, public enjoyment and education, rural economy, development and design, marketing and promotion, and research and monitoring; and ten proposed topics of action.

The use of tourist photographs in monitoring cheetah in the Serengeti National Park, Tanzania

John Shemkunde (2004)

This study examines the role of cheetahs in tourism to the Serengeti National Park in Tanzania and the possible role of tourism in monitoring cheetah species. In this is aims to assess the importance of the cheetahs as a 'flagship' species by examining the importance of cheetahs in attracting visitors to the SNP. It also aims to assess the effectiveness of using cheetah photographs from tourists as a cost effective means for the long-term monitoring of the cheetah population in the SNP and thus potentially in other PAs in Tanzania and elsewhere in Africa. It uses data on visitors to the park and on cheetah population in the south of the park gathered between 2000-2003 to address these objectives. Visitor patterns over the study period have shown a steadily increasing number of visitors to all the northern Tanzanian National Parks, with the Serengeti National Park attracting the most visitors per year. Visitors were generally from all over the world, but most visitors were from North America and Europe. A questionnaire survey showed that visitors ranked cheetahs highly as an attraction to the park, ranking cheetahs third as the species they most wanted to see, and second as the species they most enjoyed seeing. They also showed a strong willingness to help contribute to monitoring information on cheetahs. The study used data from a 'Cheetah Watch Campaign' which encouraged tourists to send in photographs and information on cheetahs that could be used for monitoring. This data was compared with data gathered through the Serengeti Cheetah Project, a long term demographic project on cheetahs. The comparison showed that the Cheetah Watch data provided a good match to the project data provided 100 or more tourist sightings were received each year. This indicates that tourists can provide information that is of benefit to park managers.

Making Wilderness Area Management Sustainable Through Ecotourism A Case Study of the Makalu Base Camp of Makalu Barun National Park, Nepal

Ang Rita Sherpa (2001)

The focus of this research is to explore the Ecotourism option to manage and sustain conservation of the Makalu Base Camp (MBC) area of the Makalu Barun National Park (MBNP) of Nepal. The objectives of this thesis are to:

• assess the natural and cultural resources of the MBC for wilderness ecotourism
• assess the human impact on the natural resources and identify possible alternatives to minimise their impacts
• define current park policies and activities related to conservation management and
• develop management guidelines to protect the wilderness quality of the base camp area

Primary data were collected via a survey and interviews with local residents, tourists and trekking staff. Secondary data include review of related records and reports. Finally a field visit was made to collect and verify the information and results by using Participatory Rural Appraisals (PRA) and Appreciative Participatory Planning Actions (APPA).

This protected area attracts around 500 visitors annually. While the number of tourists to the location is rather small compared to other protected areas of Nepal, their impact is significant. The growth of tourism has provided a range of economic opportunities to the local people. However, the visitors and the residents surveyed revealed that there has been an increasingly undesirable impact related to waste disposal, uncontrolled use of alpine vegetation and other associated problems as well as the fragmentation and destruction of wildlife habitat.

In order to achieve proper wilderness area management, various institutional arrangements were made in Makalu Barun National Park and Bufferzone including the establishment of the Makalu Tourist Association (MTA), the Porter Association and the Upper Barun Valley Integrated Conservation Committee (UBVICC).

The study revealed that park officials often decide on rules and regulations that may not always be appropriate to meet local needs. For natural resource conservation to be effective in the wilderness area, the policies and programmes should be effectively implemented at the field level with the direct involvement of the local communities. It is also recommended that ecolodges de sited at designated campsites to further support the concept of ecolodge. In support of this concept of ecolodge, the establishment of firewood depot as an alternative to kerosene depot is recommended at the designated campsites.

The View Beyond the Park: Managing the impacts of Sagarmatha National Park and its tourism on the adjoining region of Pharak, Nepal.

Mingma Norbu Sherpa (2000)

This dissertation explores the impact of the Sagarmatha National Park and its associated tourism on the adjoining region of Pharak, Nepal. In doing so, the thesis addresses issues that are of critical concern, not just to this case study, but to many instances around the world where regions adjoining protected areas face environmental, economic and social consequences as a result of the designation, and of the attraction that these highly valued areas often hold for tourists. Not only is the issue one of concern for the well-being of the surrounding areas per se, but critically, it is widely recognised that in the long term, protected areas themselves cannot maintain their ecological integrity if they become "islands" within a sea of degradation.

For the case study, the research includes primarily a social survey of stakeholders in the Pharak region (including, for example, local community members, business people, NGO representatives and national park staff), which examines the impacts of the Sagarmatha National Park policies and tourism in regard to a number of key issues: the state and management of natural resources; socio-economic development; and agricultural practices in the region. It identifies the direct and indirect impacts, and the problems and challenges faced by the region and its people. The research identifies an opportunity for more effective, collaborative management through a Buffer Zone Management Programme for which there is already legislative support in Nepal, and suggests this as the most appropriate way forward to ensure both the integrity of the national park and the sustainable development of the Pharak region beyond.

The importance of public consultation and stake-holder participation: stakeholder perceptions of protected landscapes: a case study of the National Scenic Area, South Mainland, Shetland

Bridget Simpson (2002)

With an ever increasing awareness of needing to address the imbalance between conservation objectives and socio-economical needs, landscape managers and conservationists, alike, are turning to community consultation and stake-holder participation in an attempt to develop protected areas and protected landscapes that can successfully meet their long term conservation needs and, be exemplars of sustainable development.

This thesis explores the global importance of protected areas and the emergence of the protected landscape concept, describing the different types of protected area and landscape designations that can be found in the United Kingdom, paying particular attention to the National Scenic Area, its development and political background, problems and subsequent reviews. The thesis investigates what is meant by the term stakeholder participation, what it involves and how a National Scenic area community consultation in Shetland demonstrates that community consultation and stakeholder participation is integral to protected landscape management today and why more "people centred" approaches to conservation are increasingly needed at the forefront of conservation.

National scenic Areas are a protected landscape designation in Scotland which have been defined as areas of " ...unsurpassed attractiveness which must be conserved as part of our national heritage" (Countryside Commission for Scotland 1978). Since their establishment in 1980 they have faced numerous problems instigating Government to invite Scottish National Heritage (Scotland's equivalent to the Countryside Agency in England) to undertake a national review of the designation. Unfortunately resources did not allow for those most affected by the designation i.e. local community groups, to be canvassed for their opinions or concerns about the National Scenic Area. In order to address this a comprehensive community consultation of the South Mainland of Shetland was undertaken, by the author, to identify how local communities (households, businesses and young people) felt about the National Scenic Area and the wider general landscape in addition to ascertaining how they felt that they, the owners and users of that protected landscape, could also be included in its future management.

Community Participation and the National Park Authorities of England and Wales

Andrew Smith (1999)

The National Park Authorities of England and Wales are Category V protected landscapes and are as such recognised as test-beds for sustainability and the integration of conservation and development. It is widely acknowledged that community participation is an essential precursor to successful sustainability and thus protected landscape management. Therefore in managing the National Parks of England and Wales community participation in planning and management is of key relevance. This thesis examines community participation and particularly focuses on the National Park Authorities of England and Wales. This study is based on a discussion of participation theoretically and historically which gives a conceptual framework for the examination of the Authorities. Following this the scene is set with a description of the National Parks Authorities in terms of their development and where sustainability and participation fit within their remits. With this in mind a postal questionnaire was designed and sent to all of the Authorities which focused on the participation which they initiate and how this fits within their management planning. An overall picture was sought of community participation within the Authorities. Of the 11 questionnaires 8 were completed and returned. Conclusions are drawn from the questionnaire in tandem with the previously identified conceptual framework showing that while participation is being worked into planning and management much more can be achieved. Authorities expressed a desire to increase participation however they all identified a variety of limiting factors. Steps to tackle these factors include the development of more innovative participatory initiatives that look for longevity. It is clear that the participation of the communities with the National Park Authorities in successful planning and management is vital for the achievement of the Authorities' primary aims.

Community Perceptions of Costs and Benefits of Different Forest Management Approaches: A Case Study of Udzungwa Mountain Forests and the surrounding Miombo woodlands, Tanzania

Peter Sumbi (2004)

As most of the countries in the African region are striving to move into Participatory Forest Management involving local communities adjacent to forest resources, there have been likewise, growing concerns among conservation and development agencies to try to find out how important are different forest management approaches to adjacent communities in terms of costs incurred and benefits accrued from the various participatory schemes including the participation levels of the intended beneficiaries. Much attention is also placed on the user rights as these have potential influence on the adoption of different forest management approaches and future sustainability.

This study was carried out in Udzungwa Mountains Forests and surrounding Miombo woodlands. The study aimed at assessing early perceived costs and benefits from four different forest management approaches by adjacent local communities, and their implications to implementation of participatory forest management in the study area. This study focused much on assessing: community participation, costs and benefits, user rights and the perceived contribution of different approaches to poverty reduction in the study area. The guiding hypothesis of this study was that different forest management approaches have different costs and benefits to local communities, leading to different community responses.

Both primary and secondary data collection methods were employed, while analysis was done using qualitative and quantitative methods. From the results and discussions, the study revealed that local communities adjacent to Forest Reserves and Udzungwa National Park are involved in the management of natural resources and incur substantial costs but accrue some benefits at varying scale depending on the forest conservation approach applied. While CBFM showed superiority over the other three approaches followed by National Park, JFM and 'traditional' Government Forest Reserves showed more weaknesses in terms of benefits to adjacent communities. Some legal aspects and operational mechanisms for improvement are recommended.

Law Enforcement and Community Participation in Protected Area Management

Keith Swenson (2004)

Mongolia, as an emerging democracy, has undergone enormous changes over the last 14 years. While this has created new opportunities, it has also impacted the socio-economic well being of many citizens and has placed serious burdens on the environment and in particular protected areas (PA's).

This thesis focuses on Mongolia's protected area system and how local communities, who are mainly semi-nomadic livestock herders, are collaborating with authorities to protect the natural resources they all depend on. Protected area law enforcement on its own has been ineffective in preventing the loss of bio-diversity from illegal logging, wildlife poaching and overgrazing of pasturelands. Recognising this, protected area authorities, local government and local people are seeking new ways to approach land management, to ensure environmental degradation and illegal resource use are reversed.

Mongolia has a long tradition of environmental protection, and this is explored along with the wider view to protected areas worldwide and law enforcement challenges these areas face. Throughout the world protected areas are being designated where local people have long lived, using natural resources for sustenance, and have an intimate relationship with the land. Recognising that local people can be very effective partners in protected area management has caused a major shift in the way natural resources are managed today.

The Altai Tavan Bogd National Park(ATBNP) and its Buffer Zone(BZ) in Western Mongolia, is the study area for this research. The Kazakh peoples who inhabit this area using resources inside and outside of the Park and the BZ are developing novel, yet simple ways to protect their livelihoods, gain resource use rights and enforce PA laws. With new legal mechanisms in place, local people are taking more responsibilities and urging local authorities to improve their performance. The models they are creating could have implications for PA management in other areas of Mongolia and Central Asia.

Protected Areas and Sustainable Ski Development - A comparison Between Sunshine Village and the Cairngorms

Isabelle Szczepanski (1998)

Demands to expand areas of ski development to increase economic opportunity, whilst maintaining the ecological integrity which has drawn visitors in vast numbers, has led to the search for sustainable development initiatives. Sunshine Village in Canada and the Cairngorms in Scotland are areas that have both been subject to demands for increased ski development to benefit the local community, and increased wilderness protection for the benefit of the local environment. These two areas have different national environment policies and protected area status but are similar in their common goal to provide a critical review of sustainable ski development in two contrasted protected areas.

This thesis draws attention to the different problems and pressures faced by the protected area management planning authorities in two unique ski development areas. In terms of methodology, reference is made to materials gathered in interviews and written data acquisition. A critical analysis of available literature of sustainable winter tourism was undertaken for each of the two sites.

Initially, the development of recreation and tourism management is traced from an environmental perspective. The impact of tourist development on these fragile locations is then examined. This is followed by an analysis of the means by which management planning has sought to introduce sustainable development initiatives. Different ski areas face different environmental problems and legislative constraints. However, the similarities in response to problems in these two areas and future development implications thus highlighted, substantiate the need to develop the transference of knowledge and experience gained in one area of ski development for the benefit of others throughout the world. In conclusion, this study will submit that many lessons learned in Sunshine Village are being applied to the Cairngorms, and vice versa. Also, rather than the sustainable ski development ideal be addressed by each country in isolation, an international task force specialising in this particular area of sustainable development be the means by which solutions to common problems faced be best addressed. The need for an improved exchange of information and expertise to provide essential support to the sustainable development initiative is paramount.

Tourism and its impacts on the Management of Protected Areas in Malaysia

Mon Ping Tan (2001)

Tourism in Malaysia has been a rapidly growing sector and a wide sweeping socio-economic phenomenon with broad economic, social, cultural and environmental consequences. It is likely that the tourism industry will continue to be an important area of socio-economic development in the country for many years to come.

In response to broader patterns of globalisation of economic activities, the tourism sector has experienced dramatic changes over the last few years and one such change is the structural adjustment of tourist demands. Growing numbers of tourists are no longer interested to visit the big cities but are attracted instead to environmental features such as natural resources and cultural properties. Nature-based tourism has emerged as a major new phenomenon in tourism. However, nature-based tourism affects the natural and cultural resources and at the same time is conditioned by the quality of the environment. Such a relationship has important implications from the point of view of planning and management by all actors in the nature-based tourism industry.

A network of protected areas, established for the preservation of places of scenic, historical and cultural value or places with unique animal or plant communities already exists in Malaysia. Therefore, the appropriate maintenance of these environmental features is extremely important to the development and promotion of nature-based tourism. Multiple disciplines are to be involved in maintaining such a delicate balance of nature-based tourism and the environment.

As more national parks and other protected areas are opened up for tourism, however, there is growing concern about its accompanying environmental, social and cultural implications. This dissertation thus examines how nature-based tourism affects the natural and cultural environments. Responses from the public sector were gathered and analysed in an effort to:

• Determine if nature-based tourism is detrimental to the physical and cultural environments
• Identify the problems and issues and how environmentally and socially responsible nature-based tourism might be developed and managed within the protected area context

Although more protected areas are to be established for socio-economic development, major efforts must turn to properly managing and protecting the existing environmental features. The degree of success of nature conservation in connection with nature-based tourism development depends on a structured and sensitive approach to overall tourism planning and resource management.

For the tourism industry, in particular nature-based tourism to prosper there is a need for synergies among the government, private and public sectors. The Government must invest considerable time and effort in setting the policies and priorities within which the public sector can act upon, and the private sector of the tourist industry can operate and host communities can be shielded from the worst excesses of the industry while reaping its considerable benefit.

A Study of Women's Involvement in Sustainable Development and Protected Area Management within the Developing World

Karen Ann Taylor (1998)

This study investigates the role women in the developing world play in sustainable development. This includes activities traditionally reserved for the female gender, namely productive and reproductive tasks but similarly the contribution women make to environmental conservation through independent action to maintain and improve their natural surroundings. It therefore seeks to look beyond the recent emphasis placed upon community participation to look at the extent to which women are involved. In order to debate these issues the project employs a critical review of existing Third World environment/gender literature, but also an in depth analysis of the recommendations made at all relevant international conferences to date.

This general discussion is applied more specifically to protected area thinking by use of a case study taken from Kenya. Employing a brief questionnaire directed at programme managers operating within communities in close proximity to protected area boundaries, the extent women are involved in the continued welfare of protected area resources is examined. In doing so the investigation into gender and environmental conservation also determines what, if any, barriers might hinder women's further participation and how this could be actively addressed.

The Evolution of Active Participatory Wildlife Management in Lupunde Game Management Area, Zambia.

Nasson Tembo (2000)

Over the past two decades, conservation has tended to move away from the American model of protectionist approach to conservation (fence and fines)towards local community centred approaches. The impetus for this has been the realisation that conservation cannot be achieved without the participation of the local communities who bear the cost of being deprived access to resources on which their livelihood has been dependent for generations. This has led to the evolution of the concept of Community Based Conservation (CBC), also referred to as Community Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM), which centres its principles on full participation of rural communities in resource planning and management and the realisation of socio-economic benefits from the utilisation of wildlife in order to engender a protectionist attitude to wildlife in their areas.

This study therefore looks at the impact of the CBNRM of Luangwa Integrated Resource Development Project (LIRDP) on the local community in Lupande Game Management Area (LGMA) Eastern Zambia. The document presents and comments on research findings based on 185 questionnaire responses, six community workshops and five workshops with Community Based Wildlife Scouts, within the study area.

While LIRDP has been operational for eleven years now, genuine devolution of power to the grassroots is relatively new, as the earlier approach was only centred on local leaders' participation in decision making on the utilisation of wildlife revenue accrued in the area. However, while there has been devolution of power to grassroots, CBNRM has so far been unable to stimulate local people to become active custodians of wildlife. The long term sustainability of the programme is threatened by the hijacking of the decision making by some chiefs; by insufficient household revenue; misappropriation of community funds; lack of problem animal control; poor distribution of game meat from safari hunting; and the near exclusion of traditional hunting rights. Also of major concern is the influence of strong cultural bonds of the local people.

The survey results are discussed both in relation to the objectives of LIRDP and in terms of broader concepts of community based conservation initiatives. Recommendations are presented for future orientation of LIRDP/SLAMU, and need for further research.

The Management Implications of the Human-Elephant Conflict in Protected Areas.

Petra Ten Velde Thagunna (2000)

The Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) is facing an unavoidable conflict with man. Throughout its range in the countries of South and South-East Asia the elephant is threatened by a growing human population. The fragmentation of habitats and the increasing development needs of man have disrupted the elephant's home. The clearing of forests has exposed elephants to human settlements, creating an inevitable confrontation. Conflict has instigated an unfavourable situation and may therefore require a deeper understanding of its implications.

The human-elephant conflict is indicative of the changing role of conservation. Ironically, by moving beyond protected area boundaries elephants are highlighting the need for community conservation. By destroying crops and property of surrounding villages, elephants compel managers of protected areas to look beyond their fences and boundaries in their search for solutions. The human-elephant conflict, seen positively, could inspire the expansion of protected areas and inclusion of local communities in the management of such areas. This suggests landscape level management of protected areas.

With the results of the conflict jeopardising the effective management of elephants and the protected habitats they reside in, it is time for management to explore the alternatives to conflict. This entails understanding conflict as an indicator for change, and collaborating with affected stakeholders in the search for reducing the impact of conflict.

In the study "Elephants Beyond Boundaries" it will be shown that the human-elephant conflict in fact presents an opportunity for improved management of protected areas.

Marine Fisheries and Wildlife in Pembrokeshire 2000: Sustainability and Biodiversity

David Thomas (2001)

During the last century, the over exploitation of marine resources, allied to the drive to preserve the ocean's unique biodiversity, has led to increased concern about the degradation of the global marine ecosystem. More specifically there has been particular anxiety regarding the effects of over fishing on target and non-target species. Recent growth in the designation of Marine Protected Areas (MPA's) has highlighted the need for inter-agency co-operation to manage this problem.

Fisheries by-catch issues invariably become relevant and contentious when management guidelines for MPAs are being drafted. Conservation agencies may see the MPA as a tool with which they can press for a restriction of fisheries activities. Fishermen, on the other hand, fear that any such restriction will ruin their livelihoods. For MPAs to achieve their goals of biodiversity conservation and sustainability, common ground has to be reached.

The county of Pembrokeshire in West Wales has arguably the most heavily designated stretch of coastline in the UK. It is also home to an important inshore fishery sector that deals mainly in lobster, crab and other shellfish. The local tourist economy, based on outstanding land and seascapes, safe beaches and easily watched wildlife, relies on help from the conservation and fisheries sectors to sell its product worldwide. It is therefore vital that working relationships are harmonious to ensure the sustainability of the marine environment on which many livelihoods depend.

This thesis considers how new European Union led conservation designations are requiring the fisheries and environmental sectors to work together in the management of local marine resources. To date progress has not been easy. Lack of awareness of the main issues, sectorial self-interest, historical intransigence and a reluctance to take on board new ideas are amongst the reasons cited why this is the case.

Sustainable Tourism in the National Parks of England and Wales

Fiona Tranter (1998)

Tourism has become one of the major pressures facing protected areas today. Visitor numbers to these areas of natural beauty have been increasing over the past few decades and have resulted in carrying capacities of many areas being exceeded. These protected areas are an important part of human society because they not only conserve our natural and cultural heritage but they provide opportunities for us to appreciate it. Tourism can be said to be a paradox for protected areas. In some ways it can provide benefits for these areas but it can also cause damage. There has been recognition that tourism in protected areas needs to be managed but in a way that makes it sustainable.

Sustainable tourism has evolved from the concept of sustainable development. The concept presents the idea that the type and level of development needed is that which provides improvement to the quality of human life and at the same time conserves the vitality and diversity of the earth for future generations. Sustainable tourism, in the same way, advocates tourist development whilst still maintaining the natural, social and economic environments on which it depends.

In the National Parks of England and Wales, growing numbers of visitors and tourism development over the years has led to damaging effects on the natural, social and cultural environments of the parks. Over more recent times, tourism in the National Parks has been managed with sustainability becoming the key objective. The Pembrokeshire Coast and the Peak District are two National Parks which exhibit new initiatives in the management of tourism for sustainability. However with ever increasing pressures on the parks from tourism, management of it must be constantly re-examined. The management of tourism in the National Parks of England and Wales must continue to strive towards sustainability if our natural landscapes are to survive.

Participatory Approaches to the Integration of conflicting Land Uses within Protected Landscapes: A Case Study in the Parque Natural do Sudoeste Alentejano e Costa Vicentina, Portugal

Maria Inez Trigo (2003)

This study examines the value of participatory approaches to the integration of agriculture and biodiversity conservation in the Southwest Alentejo and Vicentina Coast Natural Park (PNSACV), Portugal. The conflicting relationship between agriculture and conservation therein results from the increasing intensification of agricultural practices, which is currently one of the main threats to the valuable biological diversity in the area. The main purpose of this study is to analyse the appropriateness and feasibility of developing a participatory approach to address agriculture-conservation issues and conflicts in the area of irrigated agriculture within the PNSACV.

A survey based on semi-structured interviews to key stakeholders was combined with literature and documentary review to enable the characterisation of the issues and interests involving agriculture and conservation in the Mira Irrigation Area PRM). All the interviewees recognised the importance of agriculture and biodiversity conser vation in the area, although 78% of them were not fully aware of the value of biodiversity in the PRM. Sustainable agriculture was defended by 61% of the interviewees, whereas 22% advocated modern agriculture as the best model for agricultural development. All the interviewees agreed on the importance of integrating agriculture and conservation in the area and identified the advantages of undertaking such an approach. Furthermore, the interviewees identified some major obstacles to the integration and also suggested very interesting approaches, mechanisms and measures towards the integration of agriculture and conservation in the PRM. As regards participation, the appropriateness of adopting a participatory approach to agriculture-conservation integration was consensual among the interviewees. Moreover, the interviewees identified the major advantages of participation and also some important obstacles.

The results obtained were used to discuss the most appropriate way to address the integration of agriculture and conservation in the PRM area. Therefore, the need to develop a consensual model for the agricultural development is discussed, major obstacles to integration are analysed and a framework for the preparation of a participatory process is presented.

Community conservation and protected area management in Uganda: the potentials and pitfalls. A case study of the Lake Mburo Community Conservation Programme

Moses Turyaho (1999)

Community conservation attempts to involve local people in protected area and wildlife management. Despite the recent attention given to it in Uganda, little is known about the nature of the circumstances under which the approach is implemented and their influence on its effectiveness. This case study on the Lake Mburo's community conservation programme investigated these issues.

The "outreach" model currently employed by the Ugandan wildlife authority did not necessarily enhance the conservation status of biodiversity outside Lake Mburo National Park but rather built local support for the Park. There are opportunities for the approach although many constraints also exist. Most of the constraints affecting the effectiveness of the community conservation programme relate to the socioeconomic issues, the attitude and aptitude of implementing institutions and individuals. At the implementation level, the approach is only fully accepted by staff officially assigned to its implementation. Others view it as a threat to their traditional policing role. While communities believe the park now treats them more humanely than before the approach was introduced, the approach has failed to address the fundamental economic issues that continue to conflict with conservation interests.

Conservation initiatives that are not jointly initiated and owned by protected area managers and communities that they affect are neither effective nor sustainable. Externally supported projects have a life span and the distortions they cause may be hard to correct after they have wound up. Local participation in activities was found to be influenced by programme design and was, in addition, hampered by complex contextual factors, most of which were beyond the control and influence of the programme. Community conservation may be most effective if it focuses on issues of mutual relevance and pursues the notion of sustainability in its broadest sense. There is thus no "blue-print" for community conservation programmes which must respond to the context in which they are implemented.